Has the Pico Thrust Fault Ruptured Again Since the Northridge Earthquake

Earthquake in Los Angeles, California

1994 Northridge convulsion

Total failure of the Gilded State Motorway
ShakeMap for the result created by the The states Geological Survey
Los Angeles Las Vegas San Diego Turlock
UTC fourth dimension	1994-01-17 12:30:55
ISC event	189275
USGS-ANSS	ComCat
Local date	January 17, 1994 (1994-01-17)
Local time	4:30:55 a.m. PST[1]
Duration	ten–twenty seconds[2]
Magnitude	half dozen.seven [iii]
Depth	11.31 mi (eighteen.20 km)
Epicenter	34°12′47″Due north 118°32′13″Due west  /  34.213°N 118.537°Due west  / 34.213; -118.537 Coordinates: 34°12′47″N 118°32′13″West  /  34.213°N 118.537°W  / 34.213; -118.537
Error	Northridge Bullheaded Thrust Error[four]
Blazon	Bullheaded thrust
Areas affected	Greater Los Angeles Area Southern California U.s.
Total damage	$13–50 billion[v] (equivalent to $24–93 billion in 2021)
Max. intensity	Nine (Violent) [ane]
Superlative acceleration	one.82 g [6]
Top velocity	183 cm/s[7]
Casualties	57 killed > viii,700 injured

Magnitude of the earthquake and aftershocks

The 1994 Northridge convulsion was a moment magnitude 6.7 (),^[viii] blind thrust convulsion that occurred on January 17, 1994, at 4:30:55 a.thousand. PST in the San Fernando Valley region of the City of Los Angeles. The convulse had a elapsing of approximately ten–20 seconds, and its peak ground acceleration of 1.82 g was the highest e'er instrumentally recorded in an urban area in North America.^{[9] [10] [11]} Shaking was felt as far away equally San Diego, Turlock, Las Vegas, Richfield, and Ensenada.^[12] The tiptop ground velocity at the Rinaldi Receiving Station was 183 cm/s (4.1 mph; half-dozen.6 km/h), the fastest ever recorded.^[7]

Two 6.0 M_west  aftershocks followed, the kickoff about i minute after the initial event and the second approximately 11 hours later on, the strongest of several thou aftershocks in all.^[13] The decease toll was 57, with more than ix,000 injured.^{[14] [xv]} In improver, belongings damage was estimated to be $thirteen–50 billion (equivalent to $24–93 billion in 2021), making it ane of the costliest natural disasters in U.S. history.^[xvi]

Epicenter [edit]

The earthquake struck in the San Fernando Valley about 20 miles (32 km) northwest of downtown Los Angeles. Although given the proper noun "Northridge", where the quake was believed to have been centered and substantial damage occurred, the actual epicenter was pinpointed in the neighboring community of Reseda within several days.

The United states Geological Survey placed the hypocenter'due south geographical coordinates at 34°12′47″North 118°32′xiii″W  /  34.213°N 118.537°Due west  / 34.213; -118.537 and at a depth of 11.31 mi (eighteen.20 km).^[17] Information technology occurred on a previously undiscovered fault, at present named the Northridge Bullheaded Thrust Mistake (besides known every bit the Pico Thrust Fault).^[4] Several other faults experienced minor rupture during the master stupor and other ruptures occurred during large aftershocks, or triggered events.^[18]

Harm and fatalities [edit]

Crushed column (center) along section of Interstate x that complanate

Collapsed department (left of the police car) and sag leading to it

Flat building that collapsed onto its own footprint, crushing cars parked beneath it

Northridge Meadows flat complex significantly damaged
by the convulsion

Harm occurred up to 85 miles (137 km) away, with the well-nigh harm in the due west San Fernando Valley, and the cities and neighborhoods of Santa Monica, Hollywood, Simi Valley and Santa Clarita. The Historic Egyptian Theater in Hollywood was reddish-tagged and closed as was the Capital Theater in Glendale due to structural impairment. The exact number of fatalities is unknown, with sources estimating the number to exist lx^{[1] [fifteen]} or "over 60",^[19] to 72,^[14] where about estimates fall around sixty.^[twenty] The "official" expiry toll was placed at 57;^[fourteen] 33 people died immediately or within a few days from injuries sustained,^[21] and many died from indirect causes, such equally stress-induced cardiac events.^{[22] [23]} Some counts factor in related events such every bit a man'due south suicide peradventure inspired past the loss of his business in the disaster.^[14] More than eight,700 were injured including ane,600 who required hospitalization.^[24] Actress Iris Adrian died in September 1994 from complications of a broken hip she suffered in the earthquake.^[25]

Sixteen people were killed as a upshot of the collapse of the Northridge Meadows apartment complex.^[26] The Northridge Fashion Heart and California State University, Northridge likewise sustained very heavy harm – most notably the collapse of parking structures. The earthquake also gained worldwide attention because of damage to the vast thruway network, which serves millions of commuters every day. The most notable was to the Santa Monica Freeway, Interstate 10, known as the busiest freeway in the The states, congesting nearby surface roads for 3 months while the freeway was repaired. Farther due north, the Newhall Pass interchange of Interstate 5 (the Aureate Land Freeway) and State Route 14 (the Antelope Valley Motorway) collapsed as it had 23 years earlier in the 1971 Sylmar earthquake, fifty-fifty though it had been rebuilt with pocket-sized improvements to the structural components.^[27] LAPD motorcycle officeholder Clarence Wayne Dean died considering of the collapse of the Newhall Pass interchange, falling 40 feet from the damaged connector from southbound 14 to southbound I-5. He probable did not realize until too late in the early morning darkness that the elevated roadway had collapsed. The rebuilt interchange was renamed in his accolade a year after.^[28]

Additional damage occurred about 50 miles (80 km) southeast in the urban center of Anaheim, located in Orange County, as the scoreboard at Anaheim Stadium collapsed onto several hundred seats.^[29] The stadium was vacant at the time. Although several commercial buildings also collapsed, loss of life was minimized because of the early morning time 60 minutes of the quake, and because it as well occurred on a federal holiday (Martin Luther King Jr. Mean solar day). Also, because of known seismic activity in California, area edifice codes dictate that buildings incorporate structural design intended to withstand earthquakes. Even so, the impairment revealed that some structural specifications did not perform as intended. Because of these revelations, edifice codes were revised. Some structures were not ruby-red-tagged until months later because the damage was not immediately evident.

The quake produced unusually potent ground accelerations in the range of one.0 k. Damage was also acquired past fire and landslides. The Northridge earthquake was notable for hitting nearly the same exact area equally the half-dozen.6 San Fernando (Sylmar) earthquake.^{[ citation needed ]} Estimates of total harm range between $13 and $50 billion.^{[30] [31]}

Most casualties and damage occurred in multi-story wood-frame buildings (such every bit the 3-story Northridge Meadows apartment building). In particular, buildings with an unstable outset floor (such every bit those with parking areas on the bottom) performed poorly.^[32] Numerous fires were also acquired by broken gas lines from houses shifting off their foundations or unsecured water heaters tumbling.^[33] In the San Fernando Valley, several underground gas and water lines were severed, resulting in some streets experiencing simultaneous fires and floods. Damage to the system resulted in water force per unit area dropping to zero in some areas; this predictably affected success in fighting subsequent fires. Five days afterward, it was estimated that betwixt 40,000 and sixty,000 customers were still without public water service.^[34] As expected, unreinforced masonry buildings and houses on steep slopes suffered damage. All the same, school buildings (M-12), which are required by California law to be reinforced, in general survived fairly well.

Valley fever outbreak [edit]

An unusual effect of the Northridge earthquake was an outbreak of coccidioidomycosis (Valley fever) in Ventura Canton. This respiratory disease is caused by inhaling airborne spores of the mucus. The 203 cases reported, of which iii resulted in fatalities, constituted roughly ten times the normal rate in the initial eight weeks. This was the first written report of such an outbreak post-obit an earthquake, and it is believed that the spores were carried in big clouds of dust created past seismically triggered landslides.^[35] Nigh of the cases occurred immediately downwind of the landslides.^[36]

Facilities and infrastructure affected [edit]

Hospitals [edit]

Eleven hospitals suffered structural damage and were damaged or rendered unusable.^[24] Non only were they unable to serve their local neighborhoods, but they as well had to transfer out their inpatient populations, which further increased the burden on nearby hospitals that were still operational. Equally a result, the land legislature passed a law requiring all hospitals in California to ensure that their astute care units and emergency rooms would be in earthquake-resistant buildings by January 1, 2005. Most were unable to run into this deadline and just managed to attain compliance in 2008 or 2009.^[37]

Television, movie, and music productions [edit]

The production of movies and Telly shows was disrupted. At the time of the quake, before dawn on Monday morning, the Warner Bros. film Murder in the First (with Christian Slater, Kevin Bacon, and Gary Oldman) was actually being filmed only four miles (half-dozen.iv km) from the epicenter. Production came to a halt. The principal courtroom set was in shambles. The edifice containing the gear up was later "red tagged" equally dangerous due to the damage it sustained. The Star Expedition: Deep Space Nine episode "Profit and Loss" was being filmed at the time, and actors Armin Shimerman and Edward Wiley left the Paramount Pictures lot in full Ferengi and Cardassian makeup, respectively.^[38] The season 5 episode of Seinfeld entitled "The Pie" was due to begin shooting on January 17 before stage sets were damaged. NBC'due south The Tonight Show, hosted by Jay Leno, took identify in the NBC Studios in Burbank, close to the epicenter of the quake.^{[ clarification needed ]} Also, ABC's General Infirmary, which shoots in Los Angeles, was heavily afflicted. The set, which is at ABC Idiot box Center, suffered major damage, including partial structural collapse and water damage.

All of the convulsion sequences in the Wes Craven motion picture New Nightmare were filmed a month prior to the Northridge convulse. The existent quake struck only weeks before filming was completed. Afterwards, a team was sent out to film footage of the quake-damaged areas of the city. The cast and crew had initially idea that the scenes that were filmed before the real convulse struck were a bit overdone, but upon viewing the footage subsequently the earthquake, they were reportedly startled past the realism of it.^[39]

Some archives of film and entertainment programming were also affected. For instance, the original 35 mm main films for the 1960s sitcom My Living Doll were destroyed.^[40]

Transportation [edit]

Portions of a number of major roads and freeways, including Interstate 10 over La Cienega Boulevard, and the interchanges of Interstate v with California Land Route 14, 118, and Interstate 210, were closed because of structural failure or collapse.^{[41] [42]} James E. Roberts was chief span engineer with Caltrans and was placed in charge of the seismic retrofit programme for Caltrans until his death in 2006.

Rails service was briefly interrupted, with total Amtrak and expanded Metrolink service resuming in stages in the days after the quake. Interruptions to road transport caused Metrolink to experiment with service to Camarillo in February and Oxnard in Apr,^{[43] [44]} which continues today as the Ventura Canton Line, and extended the Antelope Valley Line almost ten years ahead of schedule. Six new stations opened in six weeks.^[45] Metrolink leased equipment from Amtrak, San Francisco's Caltrain and Toronto, Canada'southward GO Transit to handle the sudden onslaught of passengers. Amtrak ceased service in the Pasadena Subdivision following structural impairment to a rail bridge in Arcadia and redirected all rail traffic through Riverside and Fullerton. All MTA omnibus lines operated service with detours and delays on the day of the convulse. Los Angeles International Aerodrome and other airports in the area were likewise shut down every bit a 2-hour precaution, including Burbank-Glendale-Pasadena Airport (now Hollywood Burbank Airport) and Van Nuys Airdrome, which is almost the epicenter, where the control tower suffered from radar failure and panel collapse. The airport was reopened in stages after the quake.

California Land Academy, Northridge [edit]

California State University, Northridge, was the closest academy to the epicenter. Many campus buildings were heavily damaged and a parking structure collapsed. Many classes were moved to temporary structures.^[46] The 1994 Northridge convulsion greatly affected the CSUN campus, dissentious much of its infrastructure, and causing multiple fires and explosions throughout the campus.^[47] The magnitude half-dozen.seven earthquake damaged several buildings as well as destroying all communications, such as telephone lines and causing figurer systems to close down. The seismic event killed ii CSUN students at the Northridge Meadows Circuitous along with 14 other residents.^[48] The damage caused a shutdown of the campus and delayed the beginning of the 1994 Spring semester.

Campus damage [edit]

All 58 buildings on campus sustained significant damage, resulting in a $406 million recovery try (equivalent to $757 one thousand thousand today).^[49] In improver, the newly completed student parking construction C collapsed, and had to be demolished. The Oviatt Library experienced both interior and outside damage, but the overall frame of the central office of the edifice remained stable, allowing student use to continue.^[50] In the Science Complex, Building #1 and #2 suffered fire damage while the bridges connecting buildings #3 #4 were airtight and named unstable.^[51] The Fine Arts Edifice and the South Library experienced internal structural damage, resulting in the sabotage and replacement of both buildings.

Classes and enrollment [edit]

The 1994 Spring semester was delayed by two weeks due to the Northridge earthquake. The campus was unable to utilise any of its classrooms considering of the damage the buildings sustained. The campus still opened and provided students with mobile classrooms and mobile offices. CSUN President Dr. Blenda Wilson bodacious the rental of temporary structures to be placed in available spaces throughout the campus. An estimated $350 1000000 (equivalent to $640 million today) was used to supply the number of trailers and domes which housed classes and assistants offices. Enrollment dropped by approximately ane,000 students, leaving some homeless every bit dormitories were closed due to damage that rendered them unsafe and which required repair.^[52]

"An earthquake is the shifting of land, a force of nature that affects the natural, built and economic landscape"-Lauretta Wasserstein Sculpture Garden

External resources [edit]

The seismic event led to millions of dollars worth of damage resulting in a precipitous drib in student enrollment. CSUN received financial aid for its efforts in reestablishing the damaged buildings with monetary gifts from the McCarthy Foundation, the Mutual Wealth Fund, and the Matrimony Bank Foundation. In add-on, the campus received a $23,000 bank check (equivalent to $42,000 today) from the Los Angeles Times Valley Edition for the journalism department.^[53] CSUN also received assistance from government agencies FEMA and OES to back up the recovery effort and serve the needs of the local community.^[54] UCLA and Pierce College opened their doors and immune CSUN students to use their libraries while providing shuttle buses to and from the university.

Entertainment and sports [edit]

Universal Studios Hollywood shut down the Earthquake attraction, based on the 1974 motion picture show blockbuster, Convulsion. It was closed for the second fourth dimension since the Loma Prieta earthquake. Angel Stadium of Anaheim (then known equally Anaheim Stadium) suffered some damage when the scoreboard fell into the seats,^[29] forcing a Mickey Thompson Amusement Group off-road race at the ballpark to be postponed from that upcoming weekend to February 12.^[55] The theme parks Disneyland, Knott's Berry Farm and Six Flags Magic Mountain were shut downward later on the quake, merely only for inspections since all were designed with earthquakes in heed.^{[ citation needed ]} The Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum and now-gone Los Angeles Memorial Sports Arena suffered small-scale damage. The major Hollywood film studios including Warner Bros., 20th Century Trick, Columbia Pictures, Paramount Pictures, Walt Disney Studios and Universal Studios were as well shut down. The recording venues Capitol Records and Warner Bros. Records were close downwards at the time of the quake. British musicians Paul Hardcastle and Simon Harris narrowly escaped injury and were among guests evacuated when the Sheraton-Universal Hotel in Universal City, California where they were staying was damaged during the earthquake.

The Los Angeles Clippers of the NBA had three home games postponed or moved to other venues. The game scheduled against the Sacramento Kings was postponed, the game against the Cleveland Cavaliers was relocated to The Forum (and so the home arena of the Los Angeles Lakers), and the game against the New York Knicks was moved to the Arrowhead Pond (now Honda Middle) in Anaheim.

Other buildings [edit]

Numerous Los Angeles museums, including the Fine art Deco Building in Hollywood, were closed, as were numerous urban center shopping malls. Gazzarri's nightclub suffered irreparable damage and had to be torn down. The city of Santa Monica suffered significant damage. Many multifamily apartment buildings in Santa Monica were xanthous-tagged and red-tagged. An particularly hard hit was the expanse between Santa Monica Canyon and Saint John's Hospital, a linear corridor that suffered a significant amount of belongings impairment. The City of Santa Monica provided assistance to landlords dealing with repairs and then tenants could return dwelling house as soon as possible. In Valencia, the California Plant of the Arts experienced heavy damage, with classes relocated to a nearby Lockheed test facility for the balance of 1994. The Los Angeles Unified Schoolhouse District closed local schools throughout the expanse, which reopened ane week later. UCLA and other local universities were also shut down. The University of Southern California suffered some structural damage to several older campus buildings, but classes were conducted as scheduled.

Radio and television [edit]

Los Angeles' radio and idiot box stations were knocked off the air, but resumed coverage afterwards.

NBC station KNBC was the outset boob tube station to go on the air, with reporter Joe Rico beginning the station'southward coverage but two minutes afterwards the convulsion began^[56] while anchors Kent Shocknek, Carla Aragon, Colleen Williams and Chuck Henry were producing special reports throughout the morning. Other local goggle box stations, including KTLA, KCAL-TV, KCBS-TV and KABC-Tv, were also knocked off the air. Afterward, anchors and reporters Stan Chambers and Hal Fishman of KTLA, Laura Diaz, Ann Martin and Harold Greene of KABC, John Beard of KTTV, and Michael Constrict, Linda Alvarez and Tritia Toyota of KCBS were doing coverage throughout the day.^{[ citation needed ]}

Radio stations such as KFI, KFWB and KNX were on the air during the main tremor, which caused their signals to become very noisy. KROQ-FM's Kevin and Bean morning evidence asked those people tuned in to stay out of their homes.^{[ citation needed ]} Mark & Brian'due south morn testify on KLOS was also affected. The duo spoke to Los Angeles-area residents about their situation.

FM radio stations such as KRTH, KIIS, KOST and KCBS radio were bringing special reports when forenoon show hosts Robert Westward. Morgan, Rick Dees and Charlie Tuna were calling Los Angeles residents and others from their sister stations to bring their property to the stations and advising people not to drink tap water.

Government and organizations [edit]

The United states Mail suspended all mail service throughout the Los Angeles area for several days. The Los Angeles Public Library shut down near of its branches; books were knocked downwardly during the quake. The Los Angeles Metropolis Hall suffered no impairment. Los Angeles Mayor Richard Riordan declared a state of emergency and issued curfews in the area, while Governor Pete Wilson and President Beak Clinton visited Los Angeles to bout the expanse. The Archdiocese of Los Angeles's Cathedral of St. Vibiana suffered astringent impairment and canceled activities until a new cathedral was built in 2002. The Church on the Manner, which is almost the epicenter, suffered moderate harm to the church campus edifice. The Martin Luther King Jr. Parade, scheduled to have place on Jan 17, was non held.

Backwash [edit]

Lifestyle disruptions in the weeks following [edit]

In the weeks following the quake, many San Fernando Valley residents had either lost their homes entirely or experienced structural damage too severe to keep living in them without making repairs. Although the vast majority of homes in the expanse, with the exception of a few particular neighborhoods, were relatively unaffected; many feared an aftershock to rival or exceed the severity of the showtime i. While a notable aftershock never came, many residents opted to stay in shelters or live with friends and family unit outside the area for a curt time following.^[57]

While many businesses remained airtight in the days following the quake, some infrastructure was non able to be rebuilt for months, fifty-fifty years afterwards. The daily commute for many drivers in the weeks following was significantly lengthened, notably for those traveling betwixt Santa Clarita and Los Angeles, and commuters on I-10 traveling to and from the Westside. Additionally, many businesses were forced to relocate or employ temporary facilities in social club to arrange structural damage to their original locations or the difficulty accessing them. Some people fifty-fifty fabricated temporary relocations closer to their jobs while their homes or neighborhoods were being rebuilt.

Country legislative response [edit]

The Northridge earthquake led to a number of legislative changes. Due to the large amount lost by insurance companies, nigh insurance companies either stopped offering or severely restricted earthquake insurance in California. In response, the California Legislature created the California Convulsion Authority (CEA), which is a publicly managed only privately funded organization that offers minimal coverage.^[58] A substantial effort was also made to reinforce freeway bridges confronting seismic shaking, and a police requiring water heaters to be properly strapped was passed in 1995.

Engineering analysis [edit]

The analysis of the effect of Northridge earthquake on behavior of structures has been investigated past many researchers. For example, the beliefs of underground walls has been evaluated for the Northridge earthquake using numerical methods. The comparison of the seismic behavior of hole-and-corner braced walls with ACI 318 design method reveals that bending moment and shear force of the walls nether Northridge convulsion loads were observed to reach 2.8 and 2.7 times as large as the respective allowable limits. Therefore, circumspection should be taken in seismic blueprint of diaphragm walls using ACI 318 code requirements.^[59]

In popular culture [edit]

• The Northridge earthquake was used every bit a plot device in the 2004 film A Cinderella Story. The movie is a modern retelling of the Cinderella classic starring Hilary Duff and Chad Michael Murray. In information technology, Duff's graphic symbol, Sam Montgomery, lives in the San Fernando Valley with her father, stepmother, and two stepsisters. Her begetter, Hal, perishes in the quake trying to relieve her stepmother, setting the familiar tale in motion.^[lx]
• A song nigh the earthquake was featured in the Animaniacs episode "A Quake, A Quake".^[61]
• Simon Harris and Daddy Freddy recorded The Big Ane, a vocal "dedicated to all the victims"^[62] that references the magnitude and events of the convulse. Information technology's glib treament of the subject and ironically named characterization of release (Harris' Music of Life) has lead some to believe the two didn't like Los Angeles and were, in reality, less than concerned near the issue.
• The first and second episodes of the 5th season of Baywatch featured the earthquake, and how the lifeguards responded to it, professionally and personally.

See also [edit]

• 1987 Whittier Narrows convulsion
• 1992 Landers convulsion
• 1999 Hector Mine earthquake
• 2019 Ridgecrest earthquakes
• List of earthquakes in 1994
• List of earthquakes in California
• List of earthquakes in the Usa

References [edit]

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57. ^ "The Northridge Convulsion: 20 Years Ago Today". The Atlantic. Retrieved May 15, 2019.
58. ^ "CA Earthquake Authority". Retrieved Apr 13, 2016.
59. ^ Bahrami, M.; Khodakarami, Thousand.I.; Haddad, A. (Apr 2019). "Seismic beliefs and blueprint of strutted diaphragm walls in sand". Computers and Geotechnics. 108: 75–87. doi:10.1016/j.compgeo.2018.12.019. S2CID 128226913.
60. ^ Crust, Kevin (July sixteen, 2004). "Midnight can't come too soon". Los Angeles Times . Retrieved March 1, 2022.
61. ^ Elliot, Austin (Jan 21, 2013). "Yakko, Wakko, and Dot recount the Northridge convulse". American Geophysical Union. Retrieved March i, 2022.
62. ^ "Daddy Freddy - The Big One". Retrieved February 6, 2022.

External links [edit]

• Southern California Earthquake Data Eye
• USGS Pasadena
• USC Earthquake Engineering-Strong Move Group
• SAC Steel Projection (Study of welded steel failures)
• Helicopter Footage Filmed After The Quake
• Metropolis of Los Angeles Re-survey of the San Fernando Valley
• The International Seismological Centre has a bibliography and/or authoritative information for this event.

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1994_Northridge_earthquake

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